Harga satu pack rokok
Marlboro = 9000
La 16 = 7800
La 12 = 5700
Pall Mall = 5000
A Mild = 8000
Black 16 = 7500
Black 12 = 5500

Karena harga 1 pack rokok minimal 5000 lebih baik jangan membeli rokok lebih baik dibuat untuk membeli makanan yang 4sehat 5sempurna. Selain harga yang mahal merokok dapat mengganggu kesehatan, kesehatan juga mahal harganya. jagalah kesehatan diri anda.

stop merokok mulai sekarang.

http://sma9malang.blogspot.com/

apa yang harus aku temukan
untuk membuat kau menyayangiku
inilah aku yang memilih kau untukku

reff:
karna aku mencintaimu
dan hatiku hanya untukmu
tak akan menyerah
dan takkan berhenti mencintaimu

ku berjuang dalam hidupku
untuk selalu memilikimu
seumur hidupku, setulus hatiku
hanya untukmu

repeat reff

seumur hidupku, setulus hatiku
ooohhhh

http://gudanglagu.com/s/seventeen/seventeen-untuk-mencintaimu/

udah tau racun kok di konsumsi!!!!!!!!!!1

http://thefaithfularmy.files.wordpress.com/2008/04/bahaya-merokok.jpg

In 1572, when Galileo was eight years old, his family returned to Florence, his father’s home town. Pada 1572, ketika Galileo terjadi delapan tahun, keluarganya kembali ke Florence, ayahnya kota. However, Galileo remained in Pisa and lived for two years with Muzio Tedaldi who was related to Galileo’s mother by marriage. Namun, Galileo tetap di Pisa dan tinggal selama dua tahun dengan Muzio Tedaldi yang terkait dengan Galileo ibu dengan perkawinan. When he reached the age of ten, Galileo left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was tutored by Jacopo Borghini. Ketika ia mencapai usia sepuluh, Galileo Pisa kiri untuk bergabung keluarganya di Florence dan ada dia tutored oleh Jacopo Borghini. Once he was old enough to be educated in a monastery, his parents sent him to the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa which is situated on a magnificent forested hillside 33 km southeast of Florence. Setelah cukup lama dia mendapatkan pelayanan pendidikan di biara, orang tuanya dia dikirim ke Camaldolese di Vallombrosa biara yang terletak di sebuah bukit hutan megah 33 km tenggara dari Florence. The Camaldolese Order was independent of the Benedictine Order, splitting from it in about 1012. Camaldolese Pesanan yang telah independen dari rahib Pesanan, dari pemecahan di sekitar 1012. The Order combined the solitary life of the hermit with the strict life of the monk and soon the young Galileo found this life an attractive one. Pesanan gabungan yang sunyi kehidupan pendeta dengan ketat kehidupan biarawan dan segera Galileo muda ini ditemukan satu kehidupan yang menarik. He became a novice, intending to join the Order, but this did not please his father who had already decided that his eldest son should become a medical doctor. Dia menjadi bibit, dan berminat untuk bergabung dengan Pesanan, namun ini tidak silahkan ayahnya yang telah memutuskan bahwa anak sulung harus menjadi dokter medis.

Vincenzo had Galileo return from Vallombrosa to Florence and give up the idea of joining the Camaldolese order. Vincenzo Galileo telah kembali dari Vallombrosa ke Florence dan meninggal gagasan bergabung dalam rangka Camaldolese. He did continue his schooling in Florence, however, in a school run by the Camaldolese monks. Dia tidak melanjutkan sekolah di Florence, Namun, di sekolah yang dibimbing oleh Camaldolese rahib. In 1581 Vincenzo sent Galileo back to Pisa to live again with Muzio Tedaldi and now to enrol for a medical degree at the University of Pisa. Pada 1581 Galileo Vincenzo dikirim kembali ke Pisa untuk hidup lagi dengan Muzio Tedaldi dan sekarang untuk mendaftar untuk gelar medis di Universitas Pisa. Although the idea of a medical career never seems to have appealed to Galileo, his father’s wish was a fairly natural one since there had been a distinguished physician in his family in the previous century. Meskipun ide yang tidak pernah medis karir tampaknya telah merayu kepada Galileo, ayahnya ingin adalah satu alam yang cukup karena telah dibedakan dokter yang ada di keluarganya di abad sebelumnya. Galileo never seems to have taken medical studies seriously, attending courses on his real interests which were in mathematics and natural philosophy. Galileo tidak tampaknya telah mengambil studi medis serius, menghadiri kursus pada kepentingan yang nyata dalam matematika dan filosofi alam. His mathematics teacher at Pisa was Filippo Fantoni, who held the chair of mathematics. Nya guru matematika di Pisa adalah Filippo Fantoni, yang diadakan rapat matematika. Galileo returned to Florence for the summer vacations and there continued to study mathematics. Galileo kembali ke Florence untuk liburan musim panas dan terus belajar matematika.

In the year 1582-83 Ostilio Ricci, who was the mathematician of the Tuscan Court and a former pupil of Tartaglia , taught a course on Euclid ‘s Elements at the University of Pisa which Galileo attended. Pada tahun 1582-83 Ostilio Ricci, yang merupakan ahli matematika dari Tuscan Mahkamah dan mantan murid dari Tartaglia, yang diajarkan pada kursus Euclid ‘s Elemen di Universitas Pisa yang dihadiri Galileo. During the summer of 1583 Galileo was back in Florence with his family and Vincenzo encouraged him to read Galen to further his medical studies. Selama musim panas 1583 Galileo di Florence telah kembali dengan keluarganya dan Vincenzo mendorong dia untuk membaca Galen untuk studi lebih lanjut dia medis. However Galileo, still reluctant to study medicine, invited Ricci (also in Florence where the Tuscan court spent the summer and autumn) to his home to meet his father. Namun Galileo, masih enggan untuk belajar obat-obatan, diundang Ricci (juga di Florence dimana pengadilan Tuscan menghabiskan musim panas dan gugur) ke rumahnya untuk memenuhi ayahnya. Ricci tried to persuade Vincenzo to allow his son to study mathematics since this was where his interests lay. Ricci mencoba untuk meyakinkan Vincenzo untuk mengijinkan anaknya untuk belajar matematika sejak ini adalah di mana ia meletakkan kepentingan. Certainly Vincenzo did not like the idea and resisted strongly but eventually he gave way a little and Galileo was able to study the works of Euclid and Archimedes from the Italian translations which Tartaglia had made. Tentu Vincenzo tidak seperti ide dan kedua sangat tetapi akhirnya dia memberi jalan sedikit dan Galileo mampu untuk belajar karya Euclid dan Archimedes dari Italia terjemahan yang Tartaglia telah dibuat. Of course he was still officially enrolled as a medical student at Pisa but eventually, by 1585, he gave up this course and left without completing his degree. Tentu saja dia masih resmi terdaftar sebagai siswa medis di Pisa tetapi akhirnya, dengan 1585, dia memberi ini kursus dan kiri tanpa menyelesaikan gelar itu.

Galileo began teaching mathematics, first privately in Florence and then during 1585-86 at Siena where he held a public appointment. Galileo mulai mengajar matematika, swasta pertama di Florence dan kemudian selama 1585-86 di Siena dimana ia telah mengadakan perjanjian publik. During the summer of 1586 he taught at Vallombrosa, and in this year he wrote his first scientific book The little balance [La Balancitta] which described Archimedes ‘ method of finding the specific gravities (that is the relative densities) of substances using a balance. Selama musim panas 1586 ia mengajar di Vallombrosa, dan pada tahun ini ia menulis buku ilmiah yang pertama yang sedikit keseimbangan [La Balancitta] yang dijelaskan Archimedes’ metode untuk menemukan spesifik gravities (yang adalah relatif densities) yang menggunakan bahan keseimbangan. In the following year he travelled to Rome to visit Clavius who was professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano there. Pada tahun berikutnya ia berkunjung ke Roma untuk mengunjungi Clavius yang guru besar matematika di Jesuit Collegio Romano ada. A topic which was very popular with the Jesuit mathematicians at this time was centres of gravity and Galileo brought with him some results which he had discovered on this topic. Sebuah topik yang sangat populer dengan Jesuit hebat matematika saat ini adalah pusat berat dan Galileo kepadanya dengan membawa beberapa hasil yang telah ditemukan pada topik ini. Despite making a very favourable impression on Clavius , Galileo failed to gain an appointment to teach mathematics at the University of Bologna. Meskipun membuat kesan yang sangat baik pada Clavius, Galileo gagal untuk memperoleh janji untuk mengajarkan matematika di University of Bologna.

After leaving Rome Galileo remained in contact with Clavius by correspondence and Guidobaldo del Monte was also a regular correspondent. Setelah meninggalkan Roma Galileo tetap dalam kontak dengan Clavius dengan korespondensi dan Guidobaldo del Monte juga sebuah surat biasa. Certainly the theorems which Galileo had proved on the centres of gravity of solids, and left in Rome, were discussed in this correspondence. Pasti theorems Galileo yang telah terbukti pada pusat berat dari zat, dan kiri di Roma, yang dibahas dalam korespondensi ini. It is also likely that Galileo received lecture notes from courses which had been given at the Collegio Romano, for he made copies of such material which still survive today. Hal ini juga kemungkinan bahwa Galileo menerima catatan kuliah dari kursus yang telah diberikan pada Collegio Romano, ia dibuat untuk salinan materi tersebut yang masih bertahan hidup hari ini. The correspondence began around 1588 and continued for many years. Korespondensi yang dimulai sekitar 1588 dan terus selama bertahun-tahun. Also in 1588 Galileo received a prestigious invitation to lecture on the dimensions and location of hell in Dante’s Inferno at the Academy in Florence. Juga pada 1588 Galileo menerima sebuah undangan untuk kuliah pada dimensi dan lokasi di neraka Dante’s Inferno di Akademi di Florence.

Fantoni left the chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa in 1589 and Galileo was appointed to fill the post (although this was only a nominal position to provide financial support for Galileo). Fantoni meninggalkan kursi matematika di Universitas Pisa pada 1589 dan Galileo ditunjuk untuk mengisi posting (walaupun ini hanya nominal posisi untuk memberikan bantuan keuangan untuk Galileo). Not only did he receive strong recommendations from Clavius , but he also had acquired an excellent reputation through his lectures at the Florence Academy in the previous year. Tidak hanya dia menerima rekomendasi kuat dari Clavius, tetapi ia juga mempunyai reputasi yang sangat baik yang diperoleh melalui perkuliahan di Florence Akademi di tahun sebelumnya. The young mathematician had rapidly acquired the reputation that was necessary to gain such a position, but there were still higher positions at which he might aim. Anak-anak muda yang harus cepat matematika yang diperoleh reputasi yang diperlukan untuk mendapatkan posisi tersebut, namun masih ada posisi yang lebih tinggi di mana dia mungkin tujuan. Galileo spent three years holding this post at the university of Pisa and during this time he wrote De Motu a series of essays on the theory of motion which he never published. Galileo menghabiskan tiga tahun ini memegang pos di universitas dari Pisa dan waktu selama ini dia wrote De Motu serangkaian esei pada teori gerakan yang ia tidak pernah dipublikasikan. It is likely that he never published this material because he was less than satisfied with it, and this is fair for despite containing some important steps forward, it also contained some incorrect ideas. Kemungkinan bahwa dia tidak pernah diterbitkan bahan ini karena ia masih kurang puas dengan itu, dan ini adalah adil untuk walaupun berisi beberapa langkah penting maju, juga terdapat beberapa salah ide. Perhaps the most important new ideas which De Motu contains is that one can test theories by conducting experiments. Mungkin yang paling penting ide-ide baru yang berisi De Motu adalah yang satu dapat menguji teori dengan melakukan percobaan. In particular the work contains his important idea that one could test theories about falling bodies using an inclined plane to slow down the rate of descent. Secara khusus yang bekerja menggebu-ide penting yang satu dapat menguji teori tentang jatuh badan cenderung menggunakan pesawat untuk memperlambat tingkat keturunan.

In 1591 Vincenzo Galilei, Galileo’s father, died and since Galileo was the eldest son he had to provide financial support for the rest of the family and in particular have the necessary financial means to provide dowries for his two younger sisters. Pada 1591 Vincenzo Galilei, Galileo ayahnya, dan meninggal sejak Galileo adalah anak sulung ia harus memberikan dukungan keuangan untuk sisa keluarga dan khususnya memiliki sarana keuangan yang diperlukan untuk memberikan dowries atas dua adik kakak. Being professor of mathematics at Pisa was not well paid, so Galileo looked for a more lucrative post. Menjadi guru besar matematika di Pisa tidak dibayar dengan baik, sehingga Galileo mencari yang lebih proyek pos. With strong recommendations from Guidobaldo del Monte , Galileo was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Padua (the university of the Republic of Venice) in 1592 at a salary of three times what he had received at Pisa. Kuat dengan rekomendasi dari Guidobaldo del Monte, Galileo diangkat guru besar matematika di Universitas Padua (universitas Republik Venice) pada 1592 di tiga kali gaji dari apa yang telah diterima di Pisa. On 7 December 1592 he gave his inaugural lecture and began a period of eighteen years at the university, years which he later described as the happiest of his life. Pada 7 Desember 1592 ia memberikan kuliah perdana itu dimulai dan jangka waktu delapan belas tahun di universitas, yang tahun kemudian dia digambarkan sebagai yang terjun dari hidupnya. At Padua his duties were mainly to teach Euclid ‘s geometry and standard (geocentric) astronomy to medical students, who would need to know some astronomy in order to make use of astrology in their medical practice. Pada Padua telah melaksanakan tugasnya terutama untuk mengajar Euclid ‘s geometri dan standar (geocentric) astronomi medis untuk siswa, yang harus mengetahui beberapa astronomi untuk menggunakan perbintangan dalam praktek medis mereka. However, Galileo argued against Aristotle ‘s view of astronomy and natural philosophy in three public lectures he gave in connection with the appearance of a New Star (now known as ‘ Kepler ‘s supernova’) in 1604. Namun, Galileo adalah Aristoteles’ s melihat dari astronomi dan filsafat alam di tiga dia memberi kuliah umum sehubungan dengan tampilan baru Bintang (sekarang dikenal sebagai ‘Kepler’ s Supernova ‘) pada 1604. The belief at this time was that of Aristotle , namely that all changes in the heavens had to occur in the lunar region close to the Earth, the realm of the fixed stars being permanent. Kepercayaan saat ini adalah Aristoteles, yaitu bahwa semua perubahan di langit telah terjadi di daerah lunar dekat dengan Bumi, kerajaan yang tetap menjadi bintang permanen. Galileo used parallax arguments to prove that the New Star could not be close to the Earth. Galileo parallax argumen yang digunakan untuk membuktikan bahwa Bintang Baru tidak dapat dekat dengan Bumi. In a personal letter written to Kepler in 1598, Galileo had stated that he was a Copernican (believer in the theories of Copernicus ). Dalam sebuah surat pribadi yang ditulis untuk Kepler pada 1598, Galileo telah menyatakan bahwa dia adalah seorang Copernican (beriman dalam teori dari Copernicus). However, no public sign of this belief was to appear until many years later. Namun, tidak ada tanda umum ini adalah kepercayaan untuk muncul sampai beberapa tahun kemudian.

At Padua, Galileo began a long term relationship with Maria Gamba, who was from Venice, but they did not marry perhaps because Galileo felt his financial situation was not good enough. Pada Padua, Galileo mulai hubungan jangka panjang dengan Maria blogger, yang berasal dari Venice, tetapi mereka tidak menikah mungkin karena Galileo situasi keuangan beliau merasa tidak cukup baik. In 1600 their first child Virginia was born, followed by a second daughter Livia in the following year. Pada 1600 Virginia anak pertama mereka lahir, diikuti oleh kedua putri Livia di tahun berikutnya. In 1606 their son Vincenzo was born. Pada 1606 putra mereka Vincenzo dilahirkan.

We mentioned above an error in Galileo’s theory of motion as he set it out in De Motu around 1590. Kami disebutkan di atas kesalahan di Galileo’s teori gerakan dia sebagai set di De Motu sekitar 1590. He was quite mistaken in his belief that the force acting on a body was the relative difference between its specific gravity and that of the substance through which it moved. Dia cukup keliru dalam kepercayaan bahwa kekuatan bertindak pada tubuh adalah perbedaan antara yang relatif berat spesifik dan yang melalui substansi yang dipindahkan. Galileo wrote to his friend Paolo Sarpi, a fine mathematician who was consultor to the Venetian government, in 1604 and it is clear from his letter that by this time he had realised his mistake. Galileo wrote kepada teman Paolo Sarpi, denda matematika yang Venetian penasihat kepada pemerintah, pada 1604 dan jelas dari surat yang oleh waktu ini ia menyadari kesalahan itu. In fact he had returned to work on the theory of motion in 1602 and over the following two years, through his study of inclined planes and the pendulum, he had formulated the correct law of falling bodies and had worked out that a projectile follows a parabolic path. Bahkan ia kembali untuk bekerja pada teori gerakan di 1602 dan selama dua tahun berikut, melalui studi condong pesawat dan pendapat, dia telah dirumuskan yang benar jatuh badan hukum dan telah bekerja menyebutkan bahwa proyektil yang berikut Parabolic jalur. However, these famous results would not be published for another 35 years. Namun, hasil ini terkenal tidak akan dipublikasikan lain untuk 35 tahun.

In May 1609, Galileo received a letter from Paolo Sarpi telling him about a spyglass that a Dutchman had shown in Venice. Pada Mei 1609, Galileo menerima surat dari Paolo Sarpi dia menceritakan tentang sebuah teleskop kecil yang Belanda yang telah ditampilkan di Venice. Galileo wrote in the Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) in April 1610:- Galileo wrote di bintang Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) pada bulan April 1610: –

About ten months ago a report reached my ears that a certain Fleming had constructed a spyglass by means of which visible objects, though very distant from the eye of the observer, were distinctly seen as if nearby. Tentang sepuluh bulan lalu laporan mencapai telinga saya Fleming tertentu yang telah dibangun sebuah teleskop kecil dengan cara benda yang terlihat, meskipun sangat jauh dari mata pengamat, yang jelas jika dilihat sebagai dekat. Of this truly remarkable effect several experiences were related, to which some persons believed while other denied them. Ini benar-benar luar biasa efek beberapa pengalaman yang terkait, untuk beberapa orang yang beriman sementara lainnya menolak mereka. A few days later the report was confirmed by a letter I received from a Frenchman in Paris, Jacques Badovere, which caused me to apply myself wholeheartedly to investigate means by which I might arrive at the invention of a similar instrument. Beberapa hari kemudian laporan telah dikonfirmasi oleh saya menerima surat dari Perancis di Paris, Jacques Badovere, yang menyebabkan diri saya untuk sepenuh hati berlaku untuk menyelidiki cara yang mungkin tiba di penemuan instrumen yang sama. This I did soon afterwards, my basis being the doctrine of refraction. Ini saya lakukan segera setelah itu, saya menjadi dasar doktrin pembiasan.

From these reports, and using his own technical skills as a mathematician and as a craftsman, Galileo began to make a series of telescopes whose optical performance was much better than that of the Dutch instrument. Dari laporan tersebut, dan menggunakan keterampilan teknis sendiri sebagai ahli matematika dan sebagai pengrajin, Galileo mulai melakukan serangkaian teleskop optik performa yang jauh lebih baik daripada di Belanda instrumen. His first telescope was made from available lenses and gave a magnification of about four times. Awalnya teleskop dibuat dari lensa yang tersedia dan memberikan perbesaran sekitar empat kali. To improve on this Galileo learned how to grind and polish his own lenses and by August 1609 he had an instrument with a magnification of around eight or nine. Untuk memperbaiki ini Galileo belajar bagaimana untuk mengerjakan sesuatu dan polandia sendiri oleh lensa dan Agustus 1609 ia memiliki instrumen dengan perbesaran sekitar delapan atau sembilan. Galileo immediately saw the commercial and military applications of his telescope (which he called a perspicillum ) for ships at sea. Galileo segera melihat aplikasi komersial dan militer dari teleskop (dia yang disebut perspicillum) untuk kapal di laut. He kept Sarpi informed of his progress and Sarpi arranged a demonstration for the Venetian Senate. Ia dipelihara Sarpi informasi dari kemajuan dan Sarpi diatur demonstrasi untuk Venetian Senat. They were very impressed and, in return for a large increase in his salary, Galileo gave the sole rights for the manufacture of telescopes to the Venetian Senate. Mereka sangat terkesan dan, di kembali untuk meningkatkan besar di gaji, Galileo memberikan satu-satunya hak untuk produksi dari teleskop ke Venetian Senat. It seems a particularly good move on his part since he must have known that such rights were meaningless, particularly since he always acknowledged that the telescope was not his invention! Tampaknya yang baik khususnya pada bagian sejak dia harus diketahui bahwa hak-hak tersebut adalah sia-sia, terutama sejak ia selalu diakui bahwa teleskop tidak temuan itu!

By the end of 1609 Galileo had turned his telescope on the night sky and began to make remarkable discoveries. Pada akhir 1609 Galileo telah beliau teleskop di langit malam dan mulai membuat penemuan luar biasa. Swerdlow writes (see [ 16 ]):- Swerdlow menulis (lihat [16]): –

In about two months, December and January, he made more discoveries that changed the world than anyone has ever made before or since. Di sekitar dua bulan, Desember dan Januari, ia membuat lebih banyak penemuan yang mengubah dunia dari siapapun yang pernah dibuat sebelum atau sejak.

The astronomical discoveries he made with his telescopes were described in a short book called the Starry Messenger published in Venice in May 1610. Astronomi dia penemuan yang dibuat dengan teleskop yang dijelaskan dalam buku singkat yang disebut bintang Messenger diterbitkan di Venice pada Mei 1610. This work caused a sensation. Hal ini disebabkan pekerjaan membuat sensasi. Galileo claimed to have seen mountains on the Moon, to have proved the Milky Way was made up of tiny stars, and to have seen four small bodies orbiting Jupiter. Galileo diklaim telah melihat ke gunung di Bulan, untuk membuktikan Bimasakti dibuat dari bintang kecil, dan telah melihat empat hal kecil badan Yupiter. These last, with an eye to getting a position in Florence, he quickly named ‘the Medicean stars’. Terakhir ini, dengan mata untuk mendapatkan posisi di Florence, dia cepat bernama ‘yang Medicean bintang’. He had also sent Cosimo de Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, an excellent telescope for himself. Dia juga telah dikirim Cosimo de Medici, Grand Adipati Tuscany, teleskop yang sangat baik untuk dirinya.

The Venetian Senate, perhaps realising that the rights to manufacture telescopes that Galileo had given them were worthless, froze his salary. The Venetian Senat, yang mungkin mewujudkan hak untuk pembuatan teleskop Galileo yang telah diberikan kepada mereka yang berniat, gaji beku itu. However he had succeeded in impressing Cosimo and, in June 1610, only a month after his famous little book was published, Galileo resigned his post at Padua and became Chief Mathematician at the University of Pisa (without any teaching duties) and ‘Mathematician and Philosopher’ to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Namun dia berhasil impressing dan Cosimo, pada bulan Juni 1610, hanya satu bulan setelah ia terkenal sedikit buku telah diterbitkan, Galileo diri kita posting di Padua dan menjadi Ketua matematika di Universitas Pisa (tanpa tugas mengajar) dan ‘matematika dan Filsuf ‘Untuk Grand Duke dari Tuscany. In 1611 he visited Rome where he was treated as a leading celebrity; the Collegio Romano put on a grand dinner with speeches to honour Galileo’s remarkable discoveries. Pada 1611 dia berkunjung Roma di mana ia dirawat sebagai selebriti terkemuka; Collegio Romano yang mengenakan membayangkan makan malam dengan pidato untuk menghormati Galileo’s penemuan luar biasa. He was also made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei (in fact the sixth member) and this was an honour which was especially important to Galileo who signed himself ‘Galileo Galilei Linceo’ from this time on. Dia juga membuat anggota dari Accademia dei Lincei (bahkan keenam anggota) dan ini merupakan suatu kehormatan yang penting terutama untuk Galileo yang ditandatangani dirinya ‘Galileo Galilei Linceo’ dari pada waktu ini.

While in Rome, and after his return to Florence, Galileo continued to make observations with his telescope. Sementara di Roma, dan setelah itu kembali ke Florence, Galileo terus melakukan pengamatan dengan teleskop. Already in the Starry Messenger he had given rough periods of the four moons of Jupiter, but more precise calculations were certainly not easy since it was difficult to identify from an observation which moon was I, which was II, which III, and which IV. Sudah di bintang Messenger dia diberikan kasar periode dari empat dari bulan-bulan Yupiter, tetapi lebih tepat perhitungan yang pasti tidak mudah karena sulit untuk mengidentifikasi dari pengamatan yang saya bulan ini, yang telah II, yang III, IV dan yang. He made a long series of observations and was able to give accurate periods by 1612. Dia membuat rangkaian panjang pengamatan dan mampu memberikan yang akurat dengan periode 1612. At one stage in the calculations he became very puzzled since the data he had recorded seemed inconsistent, but he had forgotten to take into account the motion of the Earth round the sun. Pada satu tahap dalam perhitungan ia menjadi sangat bingung sejak data direkam dia nampaknya tidak konsisten, tetapi dia lupa untuk mempertimbangkan gerakan bumi bulat matahari.

Galileo first turned his telescope on Saturn on 25 July 1610 and it appeared as three bodies (his telescope was not good enough to show the rings but made them appear as lobes on either side of the planet). Galileo pertama beliau teleskop pada Saturn pada 25 Juli 1610 dan ternyata sebagai tiga badan (teleskop itu tidak cukup baik untuk menampilkan berdering tetapi membuat mereka tampil sebagai lobes baik pada sisi planet). Continued observations were puzzling indeed to Galileo as the bodies on either side of Saturn vanished when the ring system was edge on. Terus pengamatan teka-teki yang memang untuk Galileo sebagai badan baik pada sisi Saturn hilang ketika cincin pada ujung sistem. Also in 1610 he discovered that, when seen in the telescope, the planet Venus showed phases like those of the Moon, and therefore must orbit the Sun not the Earth. Juga pada 1610 ia menemukan bahwa, bila dilihat dalam teleskop, planet Venus menunjukkan tahapan seperti yang of the Moon, dan karena itu harus Orbit Matahari bukan Bumi. This did not enable one to decide between the Copernican system, in which everything goes round the Sun, and that proposed by Tycho Brahe in which everything but the Earth (and Moon) goes round the Sun which in turn goes round the Earth. Hal ini tidak memungkinkan satu untuk memutuskan antara sistem Copernican, yang semuanya berjalan di sepanjang Matahari, dan yang diusulkan oleh Tycho Brahe, tetapi yang di bumi (dan Bulan) Matahari pergi bulat yang pada gilirannya pergi tiba di Bumi. Most astronomers of the time in fact favoured Brahe ‘s system and indeed distinguishing between the two by experiment was beyond the instruments of the day. Kebanyakan astronomers dari waktu sebenarnya digemari Brahe ‘s sistem dan benar-benar membedakan antara dua percobaan oleh instrumen telah melebihi dari hari. However, Galileo knew that all his discoveries were evidence for Copernicanism, although not a proof. Namun, semua mengetahui bahwa Galileo itu adalah penemuan bukti untuk Copernicanism, meskipun bukan bukti. In fact it was his theory of falling bodies which was the most significant in this respect, for opponents of a moving Earth argued that if the Earth rotated and a body was dropped from a tower it should fall behind the tower as the Earth rotated while it fell. Bahkan ia jatuh kepada teori badan yang paling signifikan dalam hal ini, untuk penentang yang bergerak Bumi bahwa jika Bumi diputar dan badannya turun dari menara itu harus jatuh di belakang menara sebagai Bumi diputar sewaktu jatuh. Since this was not observed in practice this was taken as strong evidence that the Earth was stationary. Karena ini tidak diamati dalam praktek ini diambil sebagai bukti kuat bahwa Bumi telah berubah. However Galileo already knew that a body would fall in the observed manner on a rotating Earth. Namun Galileo sudah mengetahui bahwa sebuah badan yang akan jatuh pada diamati dengan cara rotasi Bumi.

Other observations made by Galileo included the observation of sunspots. Pengamatan lain yang dibuat oleh Galileo meliputi pengamatan dari sunspots. He reported these in Discourse on floating bodies which he published in 1612 and more fully in Letters on the sunspots which appeared in 1613. Dia ini dilaporkan dalam wacana apung badan dia yang diterbitkan di 1612 dan lebih lengkap dalam Surat pada sunspots yang muncul di 1613. In the following year his two daughters entered the Franciscan Convent of St Matthew outside Florence, Virginia taking the name Sister Maria Celeste and Livia the name Sister Arcangela. Pada tahun berikutnya dua anak perempuan memasuki Franciscan yg dari St Matius di luar Florence, Virginia mengambil nama Sister Maria romi dan Livia nama Sister Arcangela. Since they had been born outside of marriage, Galileo believed that they themselves should never marry. Karena mereka telah lahir di luar perkawinan, Galileo percaya bahwa mereka sendiri tidak pernah harus menikah. Although Galileo put forward many revolutionary correct theories, he was not correct in all cases. Meskipun Galileo mengemukakan banyak teori revolusioner benar, dia tidak benar dalam semua kasus. In particular when three comets appeared in 1618 he became involved in a controversy regarding the nature of comets. Secara khusus ketika muncul di tiga Comets 1618 ia menjadi terlibat dalam kontroversi mengenai sifat Comets. He argued that they were close to the Earth and caused by optical refraction. Dia menyatakan bahwa mereka dekat dengan Bumi dan disebabkan oleh pembiasan optik. A serious consequence of this unfortunate argument was that the Jesuits began to see Galileo as a dangerous opponent. Sebuah serius akibat musibah ini adalah argumen bahwa Yesuit mulai melihat Galileo sebagai lawan berbahaya.

Despite his private support for Copernicanism, Galileo tried to avoid controversy by not making public statements on the issue. Walaupun beliau swasta untuk mendukung Copernicanism, Galileo mencoba untuk menghindari kontroversi dengan tidak membuat pernyataan publik pada masalah. However he was drawn into the controversy through Castelli who had been appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa in 1613. Namun ia menjalani kontroversi melalui Castelli yang telah ditunjuk ke kursi matematika di Pisa pada 1613. Castelli had been a student of Galileo’s and he was also a supporter of Copernicus . Castelli telah siswi Galileo dan dia juga seorang pendukung Copernicus. At a meeting in the Medici palace in Florence in December 1613 with the Grand Duke Cosimo II and his mother the Grand Duchess Christina of Lorraine, Castelli was asked to explain the apparent contradictions between the Copernican theory and Holy Scripture. Pada pertemuan di istana Medici di Florence pada bulan Desember 1613 dengan Grand Duke Cosimo II dan ibunya Grand Duchess Christina dari Lorraine, Castelli telah diminta untuk menjelaskan terlihat kontradiksi antara teori Copernican dan Kitab Suci. Castelli defended the Copernican position vigorously and wrote to Galileo afterwards telling him how successful he had been in putting the arguments. Castelli defended posisi Copernican yang kokoh dan menulis kepada Galileo setelah itu dia menceritakan bagaimana ia telah berhasil menempatkan argumen. Galileo, less convinced that Castelli had won the argument, wrote Letter to Castelli to him arguing that the Bible had to be interpreted in the light of what science had shown to be true. Galileo, kurang yakin bahwa Castelli telah memenangkan argumen, wrote Banding ke Castelli kepadanya bahwa Alkitab harus diinterpretasikan dalam terang ilmu apa yang telah ditunjukkan untuk menjadi kenyataan. Galileo had several opponents in Florence and they made sure that a copy of the Letter to Castelli was sent to the Inquisition in Rome. Galileo telah beberapa lawan-lawan di Florence dan membuat mereka yakin bahwa salinan surat ke Castelli telah dikirim ke Inkuisisi di Roma. However, after examining its contents they found little to which they could object. Namun, setelah memeriksa isinya mereka menemukan sedikit ke objek yang mereka dapat.

The Catholic Church’s most important figure at this time in dealing with interpretations of the Holy Scripture was Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. Gereja Katolik angka yang paling penting saat ini dalam berurusan dengan interpretasi terhadap Kitab Suci ini Bellarmine Cardinal Robert. He seems at this time to have seen little reason for the Church to be concerned regarding the Copernican theory. Dia seolah-olah untuk saat ini telah sedikit alasan untuk Jemaat yang akan bersangkutan mengenai teori Copernican. The point at issue was whether Copernicus had simply put forward a mathematical theory which enabled the calculation of the positions of the heavenly bodies to be made more simply or whether he was proposing a physical reality. Titik yang dipermasalahkan adalah apakah Copernicus hanya mengemukakan sebuah teori matematika yang memungkinkan perhitungan posisi di langit badan dibuat lebih sederhana atau apakah ia mengusulkan sebuah kenyataan fisik. At this time Bellarmine viewed the theory as an elegant mathematical one which did not threaten the established Christian belief regarding the structure of the universe. Pada saat ini Bellarmine teori dilihat sebagai satu yang elegan matematika tidak mengancam didirikan kepercayaan Kristen tentang struktur semesta.

In 1616 Galileo wrote the Letter to the Grand Duchess which vigorously attacked the followers of Aristotle . Pada 1616 Galileo wrote Banding ke Grand Duchess yang kokoh menyerang pengikut Aristoteles. In this work, which he addressed to the Grand Duchess Christina of Lorraine, he argued strongly for a non-literal interpretation of Holy Scripture when the literal interpretation would contradict facts about the physical world proved by mathematical science. Dalam karya ini, dia yang dialamatkan kepada Grand Duchess Christina dari Lorraine, ia berpendapat sangat untuk non-kritik dari Kitab Suci ketika kritik akan bertentangan fakta tentang dunia fisik terbukti dengan ilmu matematika. In this Galileo stated quite clearly that for him the Copernican theory is not just a mathematical calculating tool, but is a physical reality:- Dalam Galileo ini cukup jelas menyatakan bahwa dia untuk tidak teori Copernican hanya alat perhitungan matematika, tapi merupakan suatu kenyataan fisik: –

I hold that the Sun is located at the centre of the revolutions of the heavenly orbs and does not change place, and that the Earth rotates on itself and moves around it. Saya berpendapat bahawa Matahari terletak di pusat dari motivator yang di langit orbs dan tidak mengubah tempat, dan bahwa Bumi berputar pada dirinya sendiri dan bergerak di sekelilingnya. Moreover … Selain … I confirm this view not only by refuting Ptolemy ‘s and Aristotle ‘s arguments, but also by producing many for the other side, especially some pertaining to physical effects whose causes perhaps cannot be determined in any other way, and other astronomical discoveries; these discoveries clearly confute the Ptolemaic system, and they agree admirably with this other position and confirm it. Saya mengkonfirmasi ini tidak hanya dengan melihat menolak Ptolemy ‘s dan Aristotle’ s argumen, tetapi juga oleh banyak produksi untuk sisi lain, beberapa terutama menyangkut fisik menyebabkan efek yang mungkin tidak dapat ditentukan dalam cara lain, dan lain penemuan astronomi; ini penemuan yang jelas membantah Ptolemaic sistem, dan mereka setuju mengagumkan ini dengan posisi lainnya dan mengkonfirmasinya.

Pope Paul V ordered Bellarmine to have the Sacred Congregation of the Index decide on the Copernican theory. Paus Paulus V Bellarmine memerintahkan agar Kongregasi Kudus dari Indeks memutuskan pada teori Copernican. The cardinals of the Inquisition met on 24 February 1616 and took evidence from theological experts. The cardinals dari Inkuisisi bertemu pada 24 Februari 1616 dan mengambil bukti dari ahli teologi. They condemned the teachings of Copernicus , and Bellarmine conveyed their decision to Galileo who had not been personally involved in the trial. Mereka dikutuk ajaran Copernicus, dan Bellarmine menyampaikan keputusan mereka untuk Galileo yang tidak terlibat secara pribadi di pengadilan. Galileo was forbidden to hold Copernican views but later events made him less concerned about this decision of the Inquisition. Galileo dilarang untuk terus Copernican dilihat tetapi kemudian dia acara yang dibuat kurang peduli ini keputusan Inkuisisi. Most importantly Maffeo Barberini, who was an admirer of Galileo, was elected as Pope Urban VIII. Maffeo Barberini paling penting, yang merupakan seorang admirer sebagai Galileo, telah dipilih sebagai Pope Urban VIII. This happened just as Galileo’s book Il saggiatore (The Assayer) was about to be published by the Accademia dei Lincei in 1623 and Galileo was quick to dedicate this work to the new Pope. Hal ini terjadi hanya sebagai Galileo buku Il saggiatore (The Assayer) adalah tentang yang akan diterbitkan oleh Accademia dei Lincei pada 1623 dan Galileo cepat ini bekerja untuk mengabdi kepada Paus baru. The work described Galileo’s new scientific method and contains a famous quote regarding mathematics:- Pekerjaan yang baru Galileo dijelaskan metode ilmiah dan berisi kutipan terkenal mengenai matematika: –

Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands continually open to our gaze. Filsafat ditulis dalam buku ini sangat bagus, semesta, yang berdiri terus terbuka untuk tatapan kami. But the book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and read the characters in which it is written. Tetapi buku tidak dapat dipahami kecuali satu pertama belajar untuk memahami bahasa dan membaca karakter yang ada tertulis. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these one is wandering in a dark labyrinth. Hal ini ditulis dalam bahasa matematika, dan karakter adalah segitiga, lingkaran, dan lain geometris tanpa angka yang sangat mustahil Kemampuan untuk memahami satu kata itu; tanpa ini adalah satu pengembaraan dalam labirin gelap.

Pope Urban VIII invited Galileo to papal audiences on six occasions and led Galileo to believe that the Catholic Church would not make an issue of the Copernican theory. Pope Urban VIII Galileo diundang untuk pemirsa dgn paus pada enam kali dan dipimpin Galileo percaya bahwa Gereja Katolik tidak akan membuat persoalan tentang teori Copernican. Galileo, therefore, decided to publish his views believing that he could do so without serious consequences from the Church. Galileo, oleh karena itu, ia memutuskan untuk mempublikasikan dilihat percaya bahwa ia dapat melakukannya tanpa konsekuensi serius dari Gereja. However by this stage in his life Galileo’s health was poor with frequent bouts of severe illness and so even though he began to write his famous Dialogue in 1624 it took him six years to complete the work. Namun dengan tahap ini dalam hidupnya Galileo kesehatan adalah miskin dengan sering bouts dari penyakit parah dan sehingga meskipun dia mulai menulis itu terkenal Dialog di 1624 ini membawanya enam tahun untuk menyelesaikan pekerjaan.

Galileo attempted to obtain permission from Rome to publish the Dialogue in 1630 but this did not prove easy. Galileo berusaha untuk memperoleh izin dari Roma penerbitan tetapi Dialog pada 1630 ini membuktikan tidak mudah. Eventually he received permission from Florence, and not Rome. Akhirnya dia menerima izin dari Florence, dan tidak ROMA. In February 1632 Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World – Ptolemaic and Copernican. It takes the form of a dialogue between Salviati, who argues for the Copernican system, and Simplicio who is an Aristotelian philosopher. Pada bulan Februari 1632 Galileo dipublikasikan Dialog Menyangkut Kepala Dua Sistem Dunia – Ptolemaic dan Copernican. Ia mengambil bentuk dialog antara Salviati, yang berpendapat untuk sistem Copernican, dan Simplicio yang merupakan Aristotel filsuf. The climax of the book is an argument by Salviati that the Earth moves which was based on Galileo’s theory of the tides. Yang klimaks dari buku merupakan Salviati oleh argumen bahwa Bumi bergerak yang didasarkan pada teori Galileo’s dari arus. Galileo’s theory of the tides was entirely false despite being postulated after Kepler had already put forward the correct explanation. Galileo’s teori dari arus itu seluruhnya palsu meskipun sudah postulated setelah Kepler telah mengemukakan penjelasan yang benar. It was unfortunate, given the remarkable truths the Dialogue supported, that the argument which Galileo thought to give the strongest proof of Copernicus ‘s theory should be incorrect. Ia memprihatinkan, mengingat kebenaran yang luar biasa Dialog didukung, argumen bahwa pemikiran Galileo yang kuat untuk memberikan bukti Copernicus’ s teori harus salah.

Shortly after publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World – Ptolemaic and Copernican the Inquisition banned its sale and ordered Galileo to appear in Rome before them. Sesaat setelah penerbitan Dialog Menyangkut Kepala Dua Sistem Dunia – Ptolemaic dan Copernican Inkuisisi dilarang penjualannya dan memerintahkan Galileo untuk muncul di Roma sebelum mereka. Illness prevented him from travelling to Rome until 1633. Penyakit dicegah dia dari perjalanan ke Roma sampai 1633. Galileo’s accusation at the trial which followed was that he had breached the conditions laid down by the Inquisition in 1616. Galileo’s Gugatan di persidangan yang diikuti adalah dia telah melanggar syarat-syarat meletakkan bawah oleh Inkuisisi pada 1616. However a different version of this decision was produced at the trial rather than the one Galileo had been given at the time. Namun yang berbeda dari versi ini adalah keputusan yang dihasilkan di persidangan bukan satu Galileo telah diberikan pada saat itu. The truth of the Copernican theory was not an issue therefore; it was taken as a fact at the trial that this theory was false. Kebenaran dari teori Copernican tidak masalah karena itu; ini dianggap sebagai sebuah fakta di persidangan bahwa teori ini adalah palsu. This was logical, of course, since the judgement of 1616 had declared it totally false. Hal ini logis, tentu saja, sejak 1616 dari penghakiman itu seluruhnya telah dinyatakan palsu.

Found guilty, Galileo was condemned to lifelong imprisonment, but the sentence was carried out somewhat sympathetically and it amounted to house arrest rather than a prison sentence. Didapati bersalah, Galileo telah mengalami penjara seumur hidup, tetapi hukuman dilakukan agak sympathetically dan jumlahnya mencapai tahanan rumah daripada hukuman penjara. He was able to live first with the Archbishop of Siena, then later to return to his home in Arcetri, near Florence, but had to spend the rest of his life watched over by officers from the Inquisition. Ia mampu hidup pertama dengan Archbishop of Siena, kemudian nanti untuk kembali ke rumahnya di Arcetri, dekat Florence, tetapi harus menghabiskan sisa hidupnya lebih dari kejauhan oleh petugas dari Inkuisisi. In 1634 he suffered a severe blow when his daughter Virginia, Sister Maria Celeste, died. Pada 1634 dia menderita parah meniup ketika anak perempuannya Virginia, Sister Maria romi, meninggal. She had been a great support to her father through his illnesses and Galileo was shattered and could not work for many months. Dia telah banyak dukungan untuk ayahnya melalui penyakit dan Galileo telah hancur dan tidak dapat bekerja untuk beberapa bulan. When he did manage to restart work, he began to write Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning the two new sciences. Ketika dia mengelola untuk memulai kembali bekerja, ia mulai menulis dan matematika demonstrasi wacana mengenai dua ilmu baru.

After Galileo had completed work on the Discourses it was smuggled out of Italy, and taken to Leyden in Holland where it was published. Setelah selesai Galileo telah bekerja pada wacana itu smuggled dari Italia, dan dibawa ke Leyden di Belanda di mana ia diterbitkan. It was his most rigorous mathematical work which treated problems on impetus, moments, and centres of gravity. Ia ia bekerja paling keras matematika yang dirawat pada masalah keuletan, saat, dan pusat berat. Much of this work went back to the unpublished ideas in De Motu from around 1590 and the improvements which he had worked out during 1602-1604. Sebagian besar ini bekerja kembali ke unpublished ide di De Motu dari sekitar 1.590 dan perbaikan yang telah bekerja selama 1602-1604. In the Discourses he developed his ideas of the inclined plane writing:- Dalam wacana, dia mengembangkan ide-ide dari pesawat cenderung menulis: –

I assume that the speed acquired by the same movable object over different inclinations of the plane are equal whenever the heights of those planes are equal. Saya berasumsi bahwa kecepatan diakuisisi oleh digeser objek yang sama lebih dari inclinations berbeda dari pesawat yang sama ketika ketinggian pesawat dari orang-orang yang sama.

He then described an experiment using a pendulum to verify his property of inclined planes and used these ideas to give a theorem on acceleration of bodies in free fall:- Dia kemudian dijelaskan percobaan menggunakan bandul untuk memverifikasi itu milik condong pesawat dan ide-ide ini digunakan untuk memberikan Teorema pada percepatan di badan bebas: –

The time in which a certain distance is traversed by an object moving under uniform acceleration from rest is equal to the time in which the same distance would be traversed by the same movable object moving at a uniform speed of one half the maximum and final speed of the previous uniformly accelerated motion. Waktu tertentu dalam jarak yang dilalui adalah sebuah objek bergerak di bawah seragam dari akselerasi sisanya adalah sama dengan waktu yang sama dalam jarak yang akan dilalui yang sama digeser objek bergerak di seragam satu setengah kecepatan maksimum dan akhir kecepatan sebelumnya percepatan gerakan seragam.

After giving further results of this type he gives his famous result that the distance that a body moves from rest under uniform acceleration is proportional to the square of the time taken. Setelah memberikan hasil lebih lanjut dari jenis ini ia memberikan hasil yang terkenal itu jarak yang bergerak dari tubuh beristirahat di bawah seragam akselerasi yang dihasilkan adalah proporsional terhadap kuadrat dari waktu diambil.

One would expect that Galileo’s understanding of the pendulum, which he had since he was a young man, would have led him to design a pendulum clock. Satu yang kita harapkan Galileo’s pemahaman tentang pendapat, yang dia sejak dia adalah seorang pemuda, dia akan dipimpin untuk merancang sebuah bandul jam. In fact he only seems to have thought of this possibility near the end of his life and around 1640 he did design the first pendulum clock. Bahkan ia hanya tampaknya sekarang ini kemungkinan menjelang akhir hidupnya dan sekitar 1.640 dia design pertama bandul jam. Galileo died in early 1642 but the significance of his clock design was certainly realised by his son Vincenzo who tried to make a clock to Galileo’s plan, but failed. Galileo meninggal pada awal 1642 tetapi arti dari jam desain yang akan direalisasikan oleh anaknya Vincenzo yang mencoba untuk membuat jam untuk Galileo rencana, namun gagal.

It was a sad end for so great a man to die condemned of heresy. Ini merupakan akhir menyedihkan untuk jadi seorang laki-laki besar untuk mati dikutuk dari klenik. His will indicated that he wished to be buried beside his father in the family tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce but his relatives feared, quite rightly, that this would provoke opposition from the Church. Nya akan menunjukan bahwa dia ingin dikubur di samping ayahnya di makam keluarga di Basilika Santa Croce saudara tetapi ia khawatir, cukup adil, ini yang akan membangkitkan oposisi dari Gereja. His body was concealed and only placed in a fine tomb in the church in 1737 by the civil authorities against the wishes of many in the Church. Tubuhnya telah bersembunyi dan hanya ditempatkan di denda kubur di gereja di 1737 oleh otoritas sipil terhadap keinginan banyak dalam Jemaat. On 31 October 1992, 350 years after Galileo’s death, Pope John Paul II gave an address on behalf of the Catholic Church in which he admitted that errors had been made by the theological advisors in the case of Galileo. Pada tanggal 31 Oktober 1992, 350 tahun setelah kematian Galileo, Pope John Paul II memberikan alamat atas nama Gereja Katolik di mana dia mengakui kesalahan yang telah dibuat oleh penasehat teologi dalam kasus Galileo. He declared the Galileo case closed, but he did not admit that the Church was wrong to convict Galileo on a charge of heresy because of his belief that the Earth rotates round the sun. Ia dinyatakan sebagai Galileo kasus ditutup, tetapi ia tidak mengakui bahwa Gereja adalah salah untuk menghukum Galileo atas dakwaan klenik karena itu kepercayaan bahwa Bumi berputar sepanjang matahari.

Article by: JJ O’Connor and EF Robertson Pasal oleh: JJ O’Connor dan EF Robertson

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Galileo Galilei‘s parents were Vincenzo Galilei and Guilia Ammannati. Vincenzo, who was born in Florence in 1520, was a teacher of music and a fine lute player. After studying music in Venice he carried out experiments on strings to support his musical theories. Guilia, who was born in Pescia, married Vincenzo in 1563 and they made their home in the countryside near Pisa. Galileo was their first child and spent his early years with his family in Pisa.

In 1572, when Galileo was eight years old, his family returned to Florence, his father’s home town. However, Galileo remained in Pisa and lived for two years with Muzio Tedaldi who was related to Galileo’s mother by marriage. When he reached the age of ten, Galileo left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was tutored by Jacopo Borghini. Once he was old enough to be educated in a monastery, his parents sent him to the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa which is situated on a magnificent forested hillside 33 km southeast of Florence. The Camaldolese Order was independent of the Benedictine Order, splitting from it in about 1012. The Order combined the solitary life of the hermit with the strict life of the monk and soon the young Galileo found this life an attractive one. He became a novice, intending to join the Order, but this did not please his father who had already decided that his eldest son should become a medical doctor.

Vincenzo had Galileo return from Vallombrosa to Florence and give up the idea of joining the Camaldolese order. He did continue his schooling in Florence, however, in a school run by the Camaldolese monks. In 1581 Vincenzo sent Galileo back to Pisa to live again with Muzio Tedaldi and now to enrol for a medical degree at the University of Pisa. Although the idea of a medical career never seems to have appealed to Galileo, his father’s wish was a fairly natural one since there had been a distinguished physician in his family in the previous century. Galileo never seems to have taken medical studies seriously, attending courses on his real interests which were in mathematics and natural philosophy. His mathematics teacher at Pisa was Filippo Fantoni, who held the chair of mathematics. Galileo returned to Florence for the summer vacations and there continued to study mathematics.

In the year 1582-83 Ostilio Ricci, who was the mathematician of the Tuscan Court and a former pupil of Tartaglia, taught a course on Euclid‘s Elements at the University of Pisa which Galileo attended. During the summer of 1583 Galileo was back in Florence with his family and Vincenzo encouraged him to read Galen to further his medical studies. However Galileo, still reluctant to study medicine, invited Ricci (also in Florence where the Tuscan court spent the summer and autumn) to his home to meet his father. Ricci tried to persuade Vincenzo to allow his son to study mathematics since this was where his interests lay. Certainly Vincenzo did not like the idea and resisted strongly but eventually he gave way a little and Galileo was able to study the works of Euclid and Archimedes from the Italian translations which Tartaglia had made. Of course he was still officially enrolled as a medical student at Pisa but eventually, by 1585, he gave up this course and left without completing his degree.

Galileo began teaching mathematics, first privately in Florence and then during 1585-86 at Siena where he held a public appointment. During the summer of 1586 he taught at Vallombrosa, and in this year he wrote his first scientific book The little balance [La Balancitta] which described Archimedes‘ method of finding the specific gravities (that is the relative densities) of substances using a balance. In the following year he travelled to Rome to visit Clavius who was professor of mathematics at the Jesuit Collegio Romano there. A topic which was very popular with the Jesuit mathematicians at this time was centres of gravity and Galileo brought with him some results which he had discovered on this topic. Despite making a very favourable impression on Clavius, Galileo failed to gain an appointment to teach mathematics at the University of Bologna.

After leaving Rome Galileo remained in contact with Clavius by correspondence and Guidobaldo del Monte was also a regular correspondent. Certainly the theorems which Galileo had proved on the centres of gravity of solids, and left in Rome, were discussed in this correspondence. It is also likely that Galileo received lecture notes from courses which had been given at the Collegio Romano, for he made copies of such material which still survive today. The correspondence began around 1588 and continued for many years. Also in 1588 Galileo received a prestigious invitation to lecture on the dimensions and location of hell in Dante’s Inferno at the Academy in Florence.

Fantoni left the chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa in 1589 and Galileo was appointed to fill the post (although this was only a nominal position to provide financial support for Galileo). Not only did he receive strong recommendations from Clavius, but he also had acquired an excellent reputation through his lectures at the Florence Academy in the previous year. The young mathematician had rapidly acquired the reputation that was necessary to gain such a position, but there were still higher positions at which he might aim. Galileo spent three years holding this post at the university of Pisa and during this time he wrote De Motu a series of essays on the theory of motion which he never published. It is likely that he never published this material because he was less than satisfied with it, and this is fair for despite containing some important steps forward, it also contained some incorrect ideas. Perhaps the most important new ideas which De Motu contains is that one can test theories by conducting experiments. In particular the work contains his important idea that one could test theories about falling bodies using an inclined plane to slow down the rate of descent.

In 1591 Vincenzo Galilei, Galileo’s father, died and since Galileo was the eldest son he had to provide financial support for the rest of the family and in particular have the necessary financial means to provide dowries for his two younger sisters. Being professor of mathematics at Pisa was not well paid, so Galileo looked for a more lucrative post. With strong recommendations from Guidobaldo del Monte, Galileo was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Padua (the university of the Republic of Venice) in 1592 at a salary of three times what he had received at Pisa. On 7 December 1592 he gave his inaugural lecture and began a period of eighteen years at the university, years which he later described as the happiest of his life. At Padua his duties were mainly to teach Euclid‘s geometry and standard (geocentric) astronomy to medical students, who would need to know some astronomy in order to make use of astrology in their medical practice. However, Galileo argued against Aristotle‘s view of astronomy and natural philosophy in three public lectures he gave in connection with the appearance of a New Star (now known as ‘Kepler‘s supernova’) in 1604. The belief at this time was that of Aristotle, namely that all changes in the heavens had to occur in the lunar region close to the Earth, the realm of the fixed stars being permanent. Galileo used parallax arguments to prove that the New Star could not be close to the Earth. In a personal letter written to Kepler in 1598, Galileo had stated that he was a Copernican (believer in the theories of Copernicus). However, no public sign of this belief was to appear until many years later.

At Padua, Galileo began a long term relationship with Maria Gamba, who was from Venice, but they did not marry perhaps because Galileo felt his financial situation was not good enough. In 1600 their first child Virginia was born, followed by a second daughter Livia in the following year. In 1606 their son Vincenzo was born.

We mentioned above an error in Galileo’s theory of motion as he set it out in De Motu around 1590. He was quite mistaken in his belief that the force acting on a body was the relative difference between its specific gravity and that of the substance through which it moved. Galileo wrote to his friend Paolo Sarpi, a fine mathematician who was consultor to the Venetian government, in 1604 and it is clear from his letter that by this time he had realised his mistake. In fact he had returned to work on the theory of motion in 1602 and over the following two years, through his study of inclined planes and the pendulum, he had formulated the correct law of falling bodies and had worked out that a projectile follows a parabolic path. However, these famous results would not be published for another 35 years.

In May 1609, Galileo received a letter from Paolo Sarpi telling him about a spyglass that a Dutchman had shown in Venice. Galileo wrote in the Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) in April 1610:-

About ten months ago a report reached my ears that a certain Fleming had constructed a spyglass by means of which visible objects, though very distant from the eye of the observer, were distinctly seen as if nearby. Of this truly remarkable effect several experiences were related, to which some persons believed while other denied them. A few days later the report was confirmed by a letter I received from a Frenchman in Paris, Jacques Badovere, which caused me to apply myself wholeheartedly to investigate means by which I might arrive at the invention of a similar instrument. This I did soon afterwards, my basis being the doctrine of refraction.

From these reports, and using his own technical skills as a mathematician and as a craftsman, Galileo began to make a series of telescopes whose optical performance was much better than that of the Dutch instrument. His first telescope was made from available lenses and gave a magnification of about four times. To improve on this Galileo learned how to grind and polish his own lenses and by August 1609 he had an instrument with a magnification of around eight or nine. Galileo immediately saw the commercial and military applications of his telescope (which he called a perspicillum) for ships at sea. He kept Sarpi informed of his progress and Sarpi arranged a demonstration for the Venetian Senate. They were very impressed and, in return for a large increase in his salary, Galileo gave the sole rights for the manufacture of telescopes to the Venetian Senate. It seems a particularly good move on his part since he must have known that such rights were meaningless, particularly since he always acknowledged that the telescope was not his invention!

By the end of 1609 Galileo had turned his telescope on the night sky and began to make remarkable discoveries. Swerdlow writes (see [16]):-

In about two months, December and January, he made more discoveries that changed the world than anyone has ever made before or since.

The astronomical discoveries he made with his telescopes were described in a short book called the Starry Messenger published in Venice in May 1610. This work caused a sensation. Galileo claimed to have seen mountains on the Moon, to have proved the Milky Way was made up of tiny stars, and to have seen four small bodies orbiting Jupiter. These last, with an eye to getting a position in Florence, he quickly named ‘the Medicean stars’. He had also sent Cosimo de Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, an excellent telescope for himself.

The Venetian Senate, perhaps realising that the rights to manufacture telescopes that Galileo had given them were worthless, froze his salary. However he had succeeded in impressing Cosimo and, in June 1610, only a month after his famous little book was published, Galileo resigned his post at Padua and became Chief Mathematician at the University of Pisa (without any teaching duties) and ‘Mathematician and Philosopher’ to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1611 he visited Rome where he was treated as a leading celebrity; the Collegio Romano put on a grand dinner with speeches to honour Galileo’s remarkable discoveries. He was also made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei (in fact the sixth member) and this was an honour which was especially important to Galileo who signed himself ‘Galileo Galilei Linceo’ from this time on.

While in Rome, and after his return to Florence, Galileo continued to make observations with his telescope. Already in the Starry Messenger he had given rough periods of the four moons of Jupiter, but more precise calculations were certainly not easy since it was difficult to identify from an observation which moon was I, which was II, which III, and which IV. He made a long series of observations and was able to give accurate periods by 1612. At one stage in the calculations he became very puzzled since the data he had recorded seemed inconsistent, but he had forgotten to take into account the motion of the Earth round the sun.

Galileo first turned his telescope on Saturn on 25 July 1610 and it appeared as three bodies (his telescope was not good enough to show the rings but made them appear as lobes on either side of the planet). Continued observations were puzzling indeed to Galileo as the bodies on either side of Saturn vanished when the ring system was edge on. Also in 1610 he discovered that, when seen in the telescope, the planet Venus showed phases like those of the Moon, and therefore must orbit the Sun not the Earth. This did not enable one to decide between the Copernican system, in which everything goes round the Sun, and that proposed by Tycho Brahe in which everything but the Earth (and Moon) goes round the Sun which in turn goes round the Earth. Most astronomers of the time in fact favoured Brahe‘s system and indeed distinguishing between the two by experiment was beyond the instruments of the day. However, Galileo knew that all his discoveries were evidence for Copernicanism, although not a proof. In fact it was his theory of falling bodies which was the most significant in this respect, for opponents of a moving Earth argued that if the Earth rotated and a body was dropped from a tower it should fall behind the tower as the Earth rotated while it fell. Since this was not observed in practice this was taken as strong evidence that the Earth was stationary. However Galileo already knew that a body would fall in the observed manner on a rotating Earth.

Other observations made by Galileo included the observation of sunspots. He reported these in Discourse on floating bodies which he published in 1612 and more fully in Letters on the sunspots which appeared in 1613. In the following year his two daughters entered the Franciscan Convent of St Matthew outside Florence, Virginia taking the name Sister Maria Celeste and Livia the name Sister Arcangela. Since they had been born outside of marriage, Galileo believed that they themselves should never marry. Although Galileo put forward many revolutionary correct theories, he was not correct in all cases. In particular when three comets appeared in 1618 he became involved in a controversy regarding the nature of comets. He argued that they were close to the Earth and caused by optical refraction. A serious consequence of this unfortunate argument was that the Jesuits began to see Galileo as a dangerous opponent.

Despite his private support for Copernicanism, Galileo tried to avoid controversy by not making public statements on the issue. However he was drawn into the controversy through Castelli who had been appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa in 1613. Castelli had been a student of Galileo’s and he was also a supporter of Copernicus. At a meeting in the Medici palace in Florence in December 1613 with the Grand Duke Cosimo II and his mother the Grand Duchess Christina of Lorraine, Castelli was asked to explain the apparent contradictions between the Copernican theory and Holy Scripture. Castelli defended the Copernican position vigorously and wrote to Galileo afterwards telling him how successful he had been in putting the arguments. Galileo, less convinced that Castelli had won the argument, wrote Letter to Castelli to him arguing that the Bible had to be interpreted in the light of what science had shown to be true. Galileo had several opponents in Florence and they made sure that a copy of the Letter to Castelli was sent to the Inquisition in Rome. However, after examining its contents they found little to which they could object.

The Catholic Church’s most important figure at this time in dealing with interpretations of the Holy Scripture was Cardinal Robert Bellarmine. He seems at this time to have seen little reason for the Church to be concerned regarding the Copernican theory. The point at issue was whether Copernicus had simply put forward a mathematical theory which enabled the calculation of the positions of the heavenly bodies to be made more simply or whether he was proposing a physical reality. At this time Bellarmine viewed the theory as an elegant mathematical one which did not threaten the established Christian belief regarding the structure of the universe.

In 1616 Galileo wrote the Letter to the Grand Duchess which vigorously attacked the followers of Aristotle. In this work, which he addressed to the Grand Duchess Christina of Lorraine, he argued strongly for a non-literal interpretation of Holy Scripture when the literal interpretation would contradict facts about the physical world proved by mathematical science. In this Galileo stated quite clearly that for him the Copernican theory is not just a mathematical calculating tool, but is a physical reality:-

I hold that the Sun is located at the centre of the revolutions of the heavenly orbs and does not change place, and that the Earth rotates on itself and moves around it. Moreover … I confirm this view not only by refuting Ptolemy‘s and Aristotle‘s arguments, but also by producing many for the other side, especially some pertaining to physical effects whose causes perhaps cannot be determined in any other way, and other astronomical discoveries; these discoveries clearly confute the Ptolemaic system, and they agree admirably with this other position and confirm it.

Pope Paul V ordered Bellarmine to have the Sacred Congregation of the Index decide on the Copernican theory. The cardinals of the Inquisition met on 24 February 1616 and took evidence from theological experts. They condemned the teachings of Copernicus, and Bellarmine conveyed their decision to Galileo who had not been personally involved in the trial. Galileo was forbidden to hold Copernican views but later events made him less concerned about this decision of the Inquisition. Most importantly Maffeo Barberini, who was an admirer of Galileo, was elected as Pope Urban VIII. This happened just as Galileo’s book Il saggiatore (The Assayer) was about to be published by the Accademia dei Lincei in 1623 and Galileo was quick to dedicate this work to the new Pope. The work described Galileo’s new scientific method and contains a famous quote regarding mathematics:-

Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands continually open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and read the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these one is wandering in a dark labyrinth.

Pope Urban VIII invited Galileo to papal audiences on six occasions and led Galileo to believe that the Catholic Church would not make an issue of the Copernican theory. Galileo, therefore, decided to publish his views believing that he could do so without serious consequences from the Church. However by this stage in his life Galileo’s health was poor with frequent bouts of severe illness and so even though he began to write his famous Dialogue in 1624 it took him six years to complete the work.

Galileo attempted to obtain permission from Rome to publish the Dialogue in 1630 but this did not prove easy. Eventually he received permission from Florence, and not Rome. In February 1632 Galileo published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World – Ptolemaic and Copernican. It takes the form of a dialogue between Salviati, who argues for the Copernican system, and Simplicio who is an Aristotelian philosopher. The climax of the book is an argument by Salviati that the Earth moves which was based on Galileo’s theory of the tides. Galileo’s theory of the tides was entirely false despite being postulated after Kepler had already put forward the correct explanation. It was unfortunate, given the remarkable truths the Dialogue supported, that the argument which Galileo thought to give the strongest proof of Copernicus‘s theory should be incorrect.

Shortly after publication of Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World – Ptolemaic and Copernican the Inquisition banned its sale and ordered Galileo to appear in Rome before them. Illness prevented him from travelling to Rome until 1633. Galileo’s accusation at the trial which followed was that he had breached the conditions laid down by the Inquisition in 1616. However a different version of this decision was produced at the trial rather than the one Galileo had been given at the time. The truth of the Copernican theory was not an issue therefore; it was taken as a fact at the trial that this theory was false. This was logical, of course, since the judgement of 1616 had declared it totally false.

Found guilty, Galileo was condemned to lifelong imprisonment, but the sentence was carried out somewhat sympathetically and it amounted to house arrest rather than a prison sentence. He was able to live first with the Archbishop of Siena, then later to return to his home in Arcetri, near Florence, but had to spend the rest of his life watched over by officers from the Inquisition. In 1634 he suffered a severe blow when his daughter Virginia, Sister Maria Celeste, died. She had been a great support to her father through his illnesses and Galileo was shattered and could not work for many months. When he did manage to restart work, he began to write Discourses and mathematical demonstrations concerning the two new sciences.

After Galileo had completed work on the Discourses it was smuggled out of Italy, and taken to Leyden in Holland where it was published. It was his most rigorous mathematical work which treated problems on impetus, moments, and centres of gravity. Much of this work went back to the unpublished ideas in De Motu from around 1590 and the improvements which he had worked out during 1602-1604. In the Discourses he developed his ideas of the inclined plane writing:-

I assume that the speed acquired by the same movable object over different inclinations of the plane are equal whenever the heights of those planes are equal.

He then described an experiment using a pendulum to verify his property of inclined planes and used these ideas to give a theorem on acceleration of bodies in free fall:-

The time in which a certain distance is traversed by an object moving under uniform acceleration from rest is equal to the time in which the same distance would be traversed by the same movable object moving at a uniform speed of one half the maximum and final speed of the previous uniformly accelerated motion.

After giving further results of this type he gives his famous result that the distance that a body moves from rest under uniform acceleration is proportional to the square of the time taken.

One would expect that Galileo’s understanding of the pendulum, which he had since he was a young man, would have led him to design a pendulum clock. In fact he only seems to have thought of this possibility near the end of his life and around 1640 he did design the first pendulum clock. Galileo died in early 1642 but the significance of his clock design was certainly realised by his son Vincenzo who tried to make a clock to Galileo’s plan, but failed.

It was a sad end for so great a man to die condemned of heresy. His will indicated that he wished to be buried beside his father in the family tomb in the Basilica of Santa Croce but his relatives feared, quite rightly, that this would provoke opposition from the Church. His body was concealed and only placed in a fine tomb in the church in 1737 by the civil authorities against the wishes of many in the Church. On 31 October 1992, 350 years after Galileo’s death, Pope John Paul II gave an address on behalf of the Catholic Church in which he admitted that errors had been made by the theological advisors in the case of Galileo. He declared the Galileo case closed, but he did not admit that the Church was wrong to convict Galileo on a charge of heresy because of his belief that the Earth rotates round the sun.

Article by: J J O’Connor and E F Robertson

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Galileo.html

]Napoleon decided on a military career when he was a child, winning a scholarship to a French military academy at age 14. His meteoric rise shocked not only France but all of Europe, and his military conquests threatened the stability of the world.

Napoleon was one of the greatest military commanders in history. He has also been portrayed as a power hungry conqueror. Napoleon denied those accusations. He argued that he was building a federation of free peoples in a Europe united under a liberal government. But if this was his goal, he intended to achieve it by taking power in his own hands. However, in the states he created, Napoleon granted constitutions, introduced law codes, abolished feudalism, created efficient governments and fostered education, science, literature and the arts.

Emperor Napoleon proved to be an excellent civil administrator. One of his greatest achievements was his supervision of the revision and collection of French law into codes. The new law codes—seven in number—incorporated some of the freedoms gained by the people of France during the French revolution, including religious toleration and the abolition of serfdom. The most famous of the codes, the Code Napoleon or Code Civil, still forms the basis of French civil law. Napoleon also centralized France’s government by appointing prefects to administer regions called departments, into which France was divided.

While Napoleon believed in government “for” the people, he rejected government “by” the people. His France was a police state with a vast network of secret police and spies. The police shut down plays containing any hint of disagreement or criticism of the government. The press was controlled by the state. It was impossible to express an opinion without Napoleon’s approval.

Napoleon’s own opinion of his career is best stated in the following quotation:

“I closed the gulf of anarchy and brought order out of chaos. I rewarded merit regardless of birth or wealth, wherever I found it. I abolished feudalism and restored equality to all regardless of religion and before the law. I fought the decrepit monarchies of the Old Regime because the alternative was the destruction of all this. I purified the Revolution.”

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Dari kelas 7 semester 2 kemarin,khushus kelas kami mendapat jam tambahan,yaitu : Senin : IPA, Rabu : Matematika , dan Jumat : TIK. 

Mulai saat itu adalah awal saya mengenal internet,sebelumnya saya hanya sering mendengarnya dan tak tau apa itu internet, setelah di ajak ke SMK YAPPI,saya untuk pertama kalinya menggunakan internet ,tetapi belum sebaik sekarang. Setiap hari Jumat  setelah jam ke 4,dan telah beristirahat 30 menit setelah berolahraga,kami langsung memburu komputer di lab… kami pelajaran sebentar dan ketika tiba waktu Salat Jumat,semua siswa laki-laki muslim bersama Mr. Sigit pergi ke masjid. Sementara itu kami para perempuan dan laki-laki yang non-muslim diperbolehkan mengakses internet sepuasnya. Setelah mereka pulang,pelajaran pun dilanjutkan…

Awalnya kami diajari membuat power point,e-mail,dan blog,dan kelas 8 ini kami diajari story board ,power point dengan materi yang ditulis dalam bahasa inggris ,dan macromedia flash..

http://id.dada.net/image/1373107/donde-esta-mi-corazon/